Narrative

What is Narrative? 
Narrative is an account of connective events; the story or storyline. In terms of cinema, narrative refers to fictitious storytelling and is the most common form of cinema, a narrative film (or fictional film) is a film that tells a story. Although, not all films may be fiction, take Titanic, for example, it's based on a true tale, however, tells a story through sequences and therefore is a form of narrative. They're composed of a string of events and is almost always structured based on cause and effect. The logic of cause and effect ties together all of the characters, obstacles, goals and actions within the film. The action is never random, there is a main line of action which can often be connected through theme. The narrative doesn't always have to be told in chronological order, take Titanic for example again, the story of the characters is told through a series of flashbacks as opposed to guiding the audience through a story taking place in the present.

Linear narratives are the most common form of narrative - these involve events being portrayed in chronological order and follow the direct logic of causality.  Nonlinear narratives portray events in non-chronological order. Flashback sequences are often confused with a form of nonlinear narratives, however flashbacks are in fact a form of linear narrative, this is because they almost always jump back to the present and tell the story in chronological order from there. An example of nonlinear narrative can be seen in the film Momento, in which the order of events is not only broken up, but entirely reversed.

Narrative Structure 
Narrative structure is essentially the structural framework of a narrative, the following points are a general summary of each stage in a typical narrative structure (according to Freytag's theory):

• Exposition - The exposition is what's used to set the scene. It introduces characters and locations and develops a theme and a normal for the film. During the sequences that comprise an exposition, the audience will be introduced to most, if not all of the key characters featured in the film - this may not even be done by physically placing them in the scene, the characters may be referenced to by dialogue etc, however, it is most common for these characters to be physically introduced. Regarding characters, exposition scenes are useful to create a back story for the characters, which may also serve as an explanation for the character's mannerisms and actions. Because a film rarely starts at where a character is born and shows everything the character does throughout life, an exposition can be used to summarise to the audience relevant background information regarding the character. This may not even apply to the character, though, it can be used to make the audience aware of significant events that occurred prior to the film's plot. Not only does it introduce the characters to the audience and convey relevant information without adding to the plot, it also is used to establish a key setting. The exposition doesn't necessarily have to be demonstrated through dialogue, mise-en-scene and anything that physically appears in front of a camera. Exposition can be conveyed through text - a famous example of this is the opening to a Star Wars film. It can be established through music, flashbacks or even narration. 

• Rising Action - The rising action is the buildup towards the point of greatest interest: the climax. It consists of all the action taking place between the exposition and the climax and is vital in a plot because the action that leads to the climax is what makes the entire plot unravel. By this point, relationships between characters have been formed and developed - the audience now has emotionally invested themselves in the film and its characters. The events that take place during the rising action can create suspense within the narrative. 

• Climax - The climax is the turning-point that changes the characters' fate - either for better or for worse. The climax is generally the point of highest tension within the narrative. It is triggered by a dilemma or series of complications which would require the resolution stage to sort out these problems.

• Falling Action - The falling action is the series of events and effects that take place after the climax, it is essentially the aftermath of the climax. During the falling action, the protagonist may experience their reversal of fortune, either for the better or for the worse. This is invoked by the climax, and the falling action would either demonstrate the protagonists downfall or rise. 

• Resolution - Often referred to as 'deneourment', the resolution is where all the dilemmas and problems caused throughout the film are fixed or resolved. All the conflict ends and either the protagonist or antagonist generally wins. It is sometimes known that film can show what happens after the resolution, which often involves the characters reflecting on all that has happened. An anticlimax may be incorporated into the resolution - this makes the hype that was built up by prior stages seem like it is resolved by something very trivial and simple.

Conventions of Narrative in Certain Genres

The following points contain narrative conventions of genre I have picked up on when watching these types of films: 

• Comedy - Comedy is a genre that uses humour as its driving force, the narrative conventions of a comedy are generally light hearted, for example the climax may often result in the character's reversal of fortune going from bad to good. Although, this may not always be the case. Given the cheery nature of a comedy film, the narrative will probably not be hard to follow and complex - this makes the film easy to watch because it has a simple, uncomplicated storyline. Humorous situations occur throughout the film as humour drives the narrative. In typical, modern comedy films, the character[s] endures unfortunate events that irritate the audience, Horrible Bosses is a perfect example of this. However things almost always end up good for the protagonists in the story. This is to keep it fitting the cheerful theme of comedy films. In subgenres of comedy, the narrative structure may slightly differ. For example, in black comedy things may end badly for the protagonist. In romantic comedies, the stereotypical plot line the narrative follows often features a "boy-gets-girl" "boy-loses-girl" "boy-wins-girl-back" plot. 

• Horror - In horror films, the narrative will be developed around fear and tension because the main purpose in a horror film is to frighten the audience. This is why narratives in horror films are often very similar - because the content needs to be frightening as opposed to original and creative so the filmmakers focus more on scaring the audience as opposed to developing the narrative. A typical plot structure I've found features in most horror films begins with a lively or neutral theme, but when the character is introduced into the setting the scary parts take place, the mood suddenly (or gradually) shifts from lively to dark, tense and/or frightening. The plot line for horror films often relies on the deaths of key characters to shake the audience, and it is extremely common for the main protagonist to either die or the film end very badly for them. In lighter horrors, this may not always be the case. A common addition to horror narrative is a short flashback sequence or small sequence in the present depicting chaos caused by the antagonist (or monster/ghost etc as often featured in a horror movie),  this sets up the mood of the film and also establishes the genre to the audience, it may also shake the audience which is why the typical narrative feature of a lighthearted beginning may be a form of relief for the audience.

• Action - Action film narratives are often more complex than others, this is because many things are generally going on which makes the film effectively chaotic and action packed. Action films often follow the typical narrative structure found in film, however subplots may be taking place, or different stages added to make the film more eventful, tense and exciting. I have found that it is fairly common in action films to create many dilemmas within the climax - this makes it exciting. Moreover, the climax and falling action is often on a larger, more public scale as opposed to domestic problems - for example the ending of a world. It may follow one particular protagonist who resolves this public issue - sometimes by sacrificing themselves. In action, it is common for the narrative structure to escalate very quickly to create chaos and therefore creates excitement and tension for the audience. The falling action may create a lot of suspense for the audience as they are waiting for the wide scale problem to be fixed - they are more emotionally invested in this because more lives are typically on the line. Action film narratives are very quick paced. 

• Drama - The genre drama is defined by the heavy mood and themes set throughout the film, however does not qualify as other forms of heavy or dark genres. eg. horror or thriller. I have found that there is an equal chance within a drama that the narrative will either end badly or good for the protagonist, however it is very common for the plot to give hope to the audience. A typical convention of drama involves serious and realistic portrayals - this applies to the narrative too - the plot will, generally, only feature realistic happenings. The narrative of a drama is driven to create realistic characters going through realistic emotional struggles. The type/subgenre of a drama often defines what the narrative structure is like. eg. a romance drama often sends the characters through heartbreak. Drama narratives I found go slowly through each stage of the narrative structure - this allows time fore more character development to create realism as opposed to focusing on the events taking place. 

• Romance - Romance film narratives often vary, I have distinguished two elements of narrative I have seen feature heavily in romance films. The first narrative is driven by the relationship between the couple. This follows two character who often meet within the film as opposed to prior to it. The narrative follow the couple begin a relationship (not necessarily official relationship, but a connection) however the climax often involves the characters engaging in conflict and soon become disassociated with one another (this conflict might not be triggered by the characters - it could be triggered by things outside of their relationship) - a good example of this is seen in The Notebook. Another plot structure often featured in romance films is following the characters who more or less remain engrossed in one another and together throughout the whole film, however it focuses on their relationship and love for each other as certain events take place around them - a good example of this is Titanic. Romance narratives can either be lighthearted or more serious this and this is often defined by the type of romance movie eg. a romantic comedy is more lively than a romantic drama. 

Narrative Theories 

• Propp - Vladimir Propp was a Russian critic who developed his own theories regarding narrative when realising the similarities between folktale stories. He realised that within these folktale the same events kept repeating thus creating a consistent framework. His book, 'Morphology of Folktale' has had a huge influence literary theorists and practitioners since its release in 1928. He broke down the folktales into the smallest possible units (he named these naratemes or narrative functions) and realised that each one of these units is an event that drives the narrative forward. These functions appear in the folktale (if they do appear) in this order: 

1. A member of a family leaves home (the hero is introduced as a unique person within the tribe, whose needs may not be met by remaining)
2. An interdiction (a command NOT to do something e.g.'don't go there', 'go to this place'), is addressed to the hero;
3. The hero ignores the interdiction
4. The villain appears and (either villain tries to find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim encounters the villain);
5. The villain gains information about the victim;
6. The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim);
7. The victim is fooled by the villain, unwittingly helps the enemy;
8. Villain causes harm/injury to family/tribe member (by abduction, theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, commits murder, imprisons/detains someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc);
9. Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/ alternative is that victimised hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment);
10. Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action;
11. Hero leaves home;
12. Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against them);
14. Hero acquires use of a magical agent (it's directly transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, is eaten/drunk, or offered by other characters);
15. Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep, banished);
19. Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed);
20. Hero returns;
21. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. Hero unrecognised, arrives home or in another country;
24. False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. Task is resolved;
27. Hero is recognised (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. False hero or villain is exposed;
29. Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new garments etc);
30. Villain is punished;
31. Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).

• Todorov - Tzvetan Todorov is a Bulgarian-french structuralist literary critic and author of many influential books and essays. In 1969, Tzvetan Todorov produced a theory regarding narrative which he believed was able to be applied to absolutely any film. He believed that all film narratives progressed through 5 stages: 

1. The Equilibrium - when everything is how it should be - there's a sense of normality.
2. Disruption - disruption occurs and is caused by a significant event
3. Recognition of Disruption - the characters are made aware that the sense of normality has been disrupted. 
4. Repair Attempts - the characters attempt to repair the damage caused by the disruption
5. Return to Equilibrium - the film returns to the state of normality - even if the normality isn't the same as it was to begin with. 

• Barthes - Roland Barthes was a French literary theorist who decided that there were 5 codes used in order to identify and describe the meaning of a text. He suggested that a text could either be 'open' (unravelled in various different ways) or 'closed' (there was only one thread you could pull on). The following points explain the 5 codes devised by Barthes: 

1. Enigma Code - this code refers to the mystery presented within a text - when clues are given but no definitive answers are revealed. These enigmas make the audience feel inclined to find out more, they also may frustrate the audience, particularly if they remain unanswered. 
2. Action Code - this code contains action within the text and creates suspense. 
3. Semantic Code - this code raises the idea of the text suggesting additional meanings. Elements of this code are referred to as Semes. The seme has connotative functions within the text - it has an extra layer of meaning as opposed to the thoughts it simply denotes. 
4. Symbolic Code - this code is about symbolism within the text. It utilises contrast to create deeper meaning which can develop character, drama or tension. 
5. Referential Code - this code is about anything in the text that refers to outside knowledge. eg. scientific facts etc. 

• Levi-Strauss - Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist and ethnologist who devised a theory regarding narrative form. He studied hundreds of myths and legends all over the world and discovered that humans use binary opposites to make sense of the world, people and events. He realised that narratives are arranged around the conflict of binary opposites. He realised that we understand certain words by highlighting the contrast between the opposite of that words as opposed to referring to the literal meaning of the word. Words act as symbols for society's ideas - the meaning of words is just a relationship between contrasting ideas. He believed that narrative structure was based on the idea that the binary opposites are the 'central climax of a narrative structure'.