Narrative

What is Narrative? 
Narrative is an account of connective events; the story or storyline. In terms of cinema, narrative refers to fictitious storytelling and is the most common form of cinema, a narrative film (or fictional film) is a film that tells a story. Although, not all films may be fiction, take Titanic, for example, it's based on a true tale, however, tells a story through sequences and therefore is a form of narrative. They're composed of a string of events and is almost always structured based on cause and effect. The logic of cause and effect ties together all of the characters, obstacles, goals and actions within the film. The action is never random, there is a main line of action which can often be connected through theme. The narrative doesn't always have to be told in chronological order, take Titanic for example again, the story of the characters is told through a series of flashbacks as opposed to guiding the audience through a story taking place in the present.

Linear narratives are the most common form of narrative - these involve events being portrayed in chronological order and follow the direct logic of causality.  Nonlinear narratives portray events in non-chronological order. Flashback sequences are often confused with a form of nonlinear narratives, however flashbacks are in fact a form of linear narrative, this is because they almost always jump back to the present and tell the story in chronological order from there. An example of nonlinear narrative can be seen in the film Momento, in which the order of events is not only broken up, but entirely reversed.

Narrative Structure 
Narrative structure is essentially the structural framework of a narrative, the following points are a general summary of each stage in a typical narrative structure (according to Freytag's theory):

• Exposition - The exposition is what's used to set the scene. It introduces characters and locations and develops a theme and a normal for the film. During the sequences that comprise an exposition, the audience will be introduced to most, if not all of the key characters featured in the film - this may not even be done by physically placing them in the scene, the characters may be referenced to by dialogue etc, however, it is most common for these characters to be physically introduced. Regarding characters, exposition scenes are useful to create a back story for the characters, which may also serve as an explanation for the character's mannerisms and actions. Because a film rarely starts at where a character is born and shows everything the character does throughout life, an exposition can be used to summarise to the audience relevant background information regarding the character. This may not even apply to the character, though, it can be used to make the audience aware of significant events that occurred prior to the film's plot. Not only does it introduce the characters to the audience and convey relevant information without adding to the plot, it also is used to establish a key setting. The exposition doesn't necessarily have to be demonstrated through dialogue, mise-en-scene and anything that physically appears in front of a camera. Exposition can be conveyed through text - a famous example of this is the opening to a Star Wars film. It can be established through music, flashbacks or even narration. 

• Rising Action - The rising action is the buildup towards the point of greatest interest: the climax. It consists of all the action taking place between the exposition and the climax and is vital in a plot because the action that leads to the climax is what makes the entire plot unravel. By this point, relationships between characters have been formed and developed - the audience now has emotionally invested themselves in the film and its characters. The events that take place during the rising action can create suspense within the narrative. 

• Climax - The climax is the turning-point that changes the characters' fate - either for better or for worse. The climax is generally the point of highest tension within the narrative. It is triggered by a dilemma or series of complications which would require the resolution stage to sort out these problems.

• Falling Action - The falling action is the series of events and effects that take place after the climax, it is essentially the aftermath of the climax. During the falling action, the protagonist may experience their reversal of fortune, either for the better or for the worse. This is invoked by the climax, and the falling action would either demonstrate the protagonists downfall or rise. 

• Resolution - Often referred to as 'deneourment', the resolution is where all the dilemmas and problems caused throughout the film are fixed or resolved. All the conflict ends and either the protagonist or antagonist generally wins. It is sometimes known that film can show what happens after the resolution, which often involves the characters reflecting on all that has happened. An anticlimax may be incorporated into the resolution - this makes the hype that was built up by prior stages seem like it is resolved by something very trivial and simple.

Conventions of Narrative in Certain Genres

The following points contain narrative conventions of genre I have picked up on when watching these types of films: 

• Comedy - Comedy is a genre that uses humour as its driving force, the narrative conventions of a comedy are generally light hearted, for example the climax may often result in the character's reversal of fortune going from bad to good. Although, this may not always be the case. Given the cheery nature of a comedy film, the narrative will probably not be hard to follow and complex - this makes the film easy to watch because it has a simple, uncomplicated storyline. Humorous situations occur throughout the film as humour drives the narrative. In typical, modern comedy films, the character[s] endures unfortunate events that irritate the audience, Horrible Bosses is a perfect example of this. However things almost always end up good for the protagonists in the story. This is to keep it fitting the cheerful theme of comedy films. In subgenres of comedy, the narrative structure may slightly differ. For example, in black comedy things may end badly for the protagonist. In romantic comedies, the stereotypical plot line the narrative follows often features a "boy-gets-girl" "boy-loses-girl" "boy-wins-girl-back" plot. 

• Horror - In horror films, the narrative will be developed around fear and tension because the main purpose in a horror film is to frighten the audience. This is why narratives in horror films are often very similar - because the content needs to be frightening as opposed to original and creative so the filmmakers focus more on scaring the audience as opposed to developing the narrative. A typical plot structure I've found features in most horror films begins with a lively or neutral theme, but when the character is introduced into the setting the scary parts take place, the mood suddenly (or gradually) shifts from lively to dark, tense and/or frightening. The plot line for horror films often relies on the deaths of key characters to shake the audience, and it is extremely common for the main protagonist to either die or the film end very badly for them. In lighter horrors, this may not always be the case. A common addition to horror narrative is a short flashback sequence or small sequence in the present depicting chaos caused by the antagonist (or monster/ghost etc as often featured in a horror movie),  this sets up the mood of the film and also establishes the genre to the audience, it may also shake the audience which is why the typical narrative feature of a lighthearted beginning may be a form of relief for the audience.

• Action - Action film narratives are often more complex than others, this is because many things are generally going on which makes the film effectively chaotic and action packed. Action films often follow the typical narrative structure found in film, however subplots may be taking place, or different stages added to make the film more eventful, tense and exciting. I have found that it is fairly common in action films to create many dilemmas within the climax - this makes it exciting. Moreover, the climax and falling action is often on a larger, more public scale as opposed to domestic problems - for example the ending of a world. It may follow one particular protagonist who resolves this public issue - sometimes by sacrificing themselves. In action, it is common for the narrative structure to escalate very quickly to create chaos and therefore creates excitement and tension for the audience. The falling action may create a lot of suspense for the audience as they are waiting for the wide scale problem to be fixed - they are more emotionally invested in this because more lives are typically on the line. Action film narratives are very quick paced. 

• Drama - The genre drama is defined by the heavy mood and themes set throughout the film, however does not qualify as other forms of heavy or dark genres. eg. horror or thriller. I have found that there is an equal chance within a drama that the narrative will either end badly or good for the protagonist, however it is very common for the plot to give hope to the audience. A typical convention of drama involves serious and realistic portrayals - this applies to the narrative too - the plot will, generally, only feature realistic happenings. The narrative of a drama is driven to create realistic characters going through realistic emotional struggles. The type/subgenre of a drama often defines what the narrative structure is like. eg. a romance drama often sends the characters through heartbreak. Drama narratives I found go slowly through each stage of the narrative structure - this allows time fore more character development to create realism as opposed to focusing on the events taking place. 

• Romance - Romance film narratives often vary, I have distinguished two elements of narrative I have seen feature heavily in romance films. The first narrative is driven by the relationship between the couple. This follows two character who often meet within the film as opposed to prior to it. The narrative follow the couple begin a relationship (not necessarily official relationship, but a connection) however the climax often involves the characters engaging in conflict and soon become disassociated with one another (this conflict might not be triggered by the characters - it could be triggered by things outside of their relationship) - a good example of this is seen in The Notebook. Another plot structure often featured in romance films is following the characters who more or less remain engrossed in one another and together throughout the whole film, however it focuses on their relationship and love for each other as certain events take place around them - a good example of this is Titanic. Romance narratives can either be lighthearted or more serious this and this is often defined by the type of romance movie eg. a romantic comedy is more lively than a romantic drama. 

Narrative Theories 

• Propp - Vladimir Propp was a Russian critic who developed his own theories regarding narrative when realising the similarities between folktale stories. He realised that within these folktale the same events kept repeating thus creating a consistent framework. His book, 'Morphology of Folktale' has had a huge influence literary theorists and practitioners since its release in 1928. He broke down the folktales into the smallest possible units (he named these naratemes or narrative functions) and realised that each one of these units is an event that drives the narrative forward. These functions appear in the folktale (if they do appear) in this order: 

1. A member of a family leaves home (the hero is introduced as a unique person within the tribe, whose needs may not be met by remaining)
2. An interdiction (a command NOT to do something e.g.'don't go there', 'go to this place'), is addressed to the hero;
3. The hero ignores the interdiction
4. The villain appears and (either villain tries to find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim encounters the villain);
5. The villain gains information about the victim;
6. The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim);
7. The victim is fooled by the villain, unwittingly helps the enemy;
8. Villain causes harm/injury to family/tribe member (by abduction, theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, commits murder, imprisons/detains someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc);
9. Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/ alternative is that victimised hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment);
10. Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action;
11. Hero leaves home;
12. Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against them);
14. Hero acquires use of a magical agent (it's directly transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, is eaten/drunk, or offered by other characters);
15. Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep, banished);
19. Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed);
20. Hero returns;
21. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. Hero unrecognised, arrives home or in another country;
24. False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. Task is resolved;
27. Hero is recognised (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. False hero or villain is exposed;
29. Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new garments etc);
30. Villain is punished;
31. Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).

• Todorov - Tzvetan Todorov is a Bulgarian-french structuralist literary critic and author of many influential books and essays. In 1969, Tzvetan Todorov produced a theory regarding narrative which he believed was able to be applied to absolutely any film. He believed that all film narratives progressed through 5 stages: 

1. The Equilibrium - when everything is how it should be - there's a sense of normality.
2. Disruption - disruption occurs and is caused by a significant event
3. Recognition of Disruption - the characters are made aware that the sense of normality has been disrupted. 
4. Repair Attempts - the characters attempt to repair the damage caused by the disruption
5. Return to Equilibrium - the film returns to the state of normality - even if the normality isn't the same as it was to begin with. 

• Barthes - Roland Barthes was a French literary theorist who decided that there were 5 codes used in order to identify and describe the meaning of a text. He suggested that a text could either be 'open' (unravelled in various different ways) or 'closed' (there was only one thread you could pull on). The following points explain the 5 codes devised by Barthes: 

1. Enigma Code - this code refers to the mystery presented within a text - when clues are given but no definitive answers are revealed. These enigmas make the audience feel inclined to find out more, they also may frustrate the audience, particularly if they remain unanswered. 
2. Action Code - this code contains action within the text and creates suspense. 
3. Semantic Code - this code raises the idea of the text suggesting additional meanings. Elements of this code are referred to as Semes. The seme has connotative functions within the text - it has an extra layer of meaning as opposed to the thoughts it simply denotes. 
4. Symbolic Code - this code is about symbolism within the text. It utilises contrast to create deeper meaning which can develop character, drama or tension. 
5. Referential Code - this code is about anything in the text that refers to outside knowledge. eg. scientific facts etc. 

• Levi-Strauss - Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist and ethnologist who devised a theory regarding narrative form. He studied hundreds of myths and legends all over the world and discovered that humans use binary opposites to make sense of the world, people and events. He realised that narratives are arranged around the conflict of binary opposites. He realised that we understand certain words by highlighting the contrast between the opposite of that words as opposed to referring to the literal meaning of the word. Words act as symbols for society's ideas - the meaning of words is just a relationship between contrasting ideas. He believed that narrative structure was based on the idea that the binary opposites are the 'central climax of a narrative structure'. 

Mise-en-Scène Research

What is the Purpose of Mise-en-Scène?

Mise-en-Scène is a common concept in stage and film, literally translating from French as 'putting on scene'. Regarding cinema, mise-en-scène refers to everything that appears in front of the camera, cinematography and editing.  It is the use of visual aids to aid storytelling through representation. The physical aspects of mise-en-scène (the properties appearing in front of the camera) may include composition, set design, lighting, props, actors, costume, location etc. It essentially works as visual information for the audience and can establish key information including era, time, region (culture) and perhaps even a character's state of mind. The composition consists of the positioning and movement of actors and object in the camera's frame. 

Depending on the director's vision, the components of mise-en-scène can confer a sense of realism, or even fantasy, onto the film, but it helps make the entirety of the film seem believable. 

Components of Mise-en-Scène

• Set Design - this refers to the setting of the scene and placement of the props visible. This can clarify to the audience what era it is based in, based on the style of the props and set. For example, a period piece would contain antique appearing props. Contemporary, electric based items would not fit well in a period piece as they wouldn't have existed, this would make the film seem amateur and unrealistic, and it may even confuse the audience. A film where it takes the audience a very long time to assume what time it is set in (where this effect isn't intended) has poor mise-en-scène because it doesn't supply enough visual information for the audience. Another thing the set design may suggest is the whereabouts of the film. For example, if the set was clearly domestic appearing, it can be assumed to be in a house as opposed to a professional environment. The set design may also suggest what a character is like before they've even been introduced, for example, if the set is blatantly a room with a single bed and posters on the wall and dirty clothes all over the floor, it can be assumed that it belongs to a teenager, based on what's typically associated with this age group. Moreover, because it is messy, the audience can guess what the character who lives in the room is like, as a tidy room would insinuate that the person is organised etc. It can also suggest their interests, for example the posters may depict a band, and suggest not only that the character likes music, but what kind of music they're into. Even if the band isn't recognisable to the audience, the composition of the poster (including colour, costumes of people etc) can suggest what sort of genre they are. This proves that even minor details regarding set design can bestow so much visual information onto the audience. Some people can choose whether to film on location or set, location would require a lot less setting up as it already looks how its supposed to. The director and set designer coordinate this aspect.

From this set design, it can be assumed that this is based in a
domestic suite, as it's quite homely. You can tell that the house
in which this room inside belongs to wealthy occupants as
the objects inside are very expensive and luxurious appearing.
It is well kept and coordinated, this suggests that the owners of
the house have taste as well as are quite organised and care about
what their house looks like. Although the room is very stripped
back and simple, it features small artistic qualities (the painting
for example) and therefore suggests that the owners are quite
cultured. It has both traditional and contemporary objects, but the 
inclusion of contemporary props suggests that its set in the present.

• Lighting - the intensity and direction of lighting can change the mood of the film, as well as how the audience interprets the characters, actions and themes. It can be used to emphasise certain properties, including texture, shape, distance, mood, time of day, season, glamour etc. Furthermore, it affects the way colours appear, slightly changing the hue or depth. This can be seen in everyday life, for example under artificial light, objects generally look either orange or blue (depending on the colour of the bulb), whereas in natural daytime light, objects are generally quite neutral coloured. Lighting can also draw attention to a particular aspect of the scene by creating a spot light or having contrasting shadows and highlights. Highlights draw attention because the focal interest becomes more visible in contrast to the shadows. Shadows can make things look smaller, but they can also make it seem dark, gloomy or frightening. In a horror film, dim, contrasting and artificial lighting would be more effective because it conceals and therefore creates an eerie or mysterious effect, whereas a more lighthearted family film would use brighter natural lighting because it appears more innocent and lively. Lighting is a huge part because it can dramatically alter how the audience perceives things in the film. It can signify a dominant role, for example something that is supposed to stand out would be bright against a shadowy background by casting light over the focal object. It can also be used as a beauty enhancer, because lighting can accentuate certain features on a face and therefore make 'beautiful' features appear more prominent and conceal 'unattractive' aspects of the face. Lighting also has many connotations, for example, exposed lighting connotes truthfulness, happiness and innocence, whereas dark lighting connotes deceitfulness, evil, depression or even anger. Backlighting is where it is heavily lit behind a figure of interest, causing them to become a silhouette or very dark and not very detailed. Cinematographers coordinate the camera and lighting.

These two images depict the same woman, however in different lighting. This
signifies how much lighting can change the appearance of things. The left-hand
image is more exposed to the light, and therefore almost all of her face is lit with
no conspicuous shadows. This makes the woman seem friendly and open.
In the picture on the right, the woman is pulling the exact same face, except she
looks so different. This is because she is in high contrast lighting so there are
harsh shadows cast across her face and dramatic streaks of lighting. There is barely
an in-between. Adding shadows across her face makes her seem evil, and therefore
has a more horror/thriller fitting. Her eye is almost entirely concealed, which adds
an air of mystery to the photograph.

• Space and Framing - The portrayal of space can alter the audience's interpretation of the film.  Changing the camera positioning, angles, lenses and the lighting or set design can warp the depth, size, proximity etc. of objects and places in the film, and allow the audience to understand relationships between certain elements. Space is defined by what the frame of the image includes. Deep space is used when significant objects are both near and far from the camera, having lots of depth allows the audience to see both significant elements. It can be used to help the audience understand where characters stand in terms of their environment - how far away they are from a point of interest etc. This could also be used to create the illusion of isolation, as a singular element of interest is against a huge background etc. Shallow depth has a more artistic appeal, as it can add an air of ambiguity because some of the visible space may be cut off etc. Moreover, space can be used to change the mood, for example, filming in areas to make it look small and confined can make it seem chaotic and trigger the feeling of suffocation in the audience whereas filming in large open areas gives a more relaxed feeling to the film. There are ways to manipulate space by changing certain aspects, for example, smaller objects will look further away, overlapping will add depth etc. 

In this photograph I took, the viewer is given an indication into the space
by the background and the two figures (the ducks) in the image. For example,
the duck in the foreground is a lot larger than the duck in the background,
this suggests that the duck in the foreground is in front of the other duck, even
though they aren't overlapping, because the size of the other duck suggests how
far away it is from the duck in the foreground. The spatial relationship between the
two ducks in this photograph may also (if it were part of a film) give an indication
as to the actual, abstract relationship between the two characters, as they are not
intimate. Furthermore, the background clearly depicts a vast body of water, as the
end of it is not included in the frame. This suggests how much space there is in
the entire location, as there is no visible end. Having taken the picture, I know
that there was an end, it was in fact taken on a small loch, however, the
viewers of the photograph cannot guess this because there is no visible end.
This shows how what is included in the frame can change how the viewer interprets
 the size of the space. There is quite a relaxing aura to this image, as
it is such an open space and isn't compact or chaotic with objects and characters.

• Composition - Composition refers to the organisation of the actors, objects and space within the frame. It is often seen as important to keep the composition consistently symmetrical in order for it to seem professional. This means having an equal distribution of light, colour, objects and/or characters in a shot, however, an unbalanced composition may be used in order to draw attention to a particular element as it looks odd to the audience and they'll pick up on it much easier. The placement of characters can help indicate the significance of each character, for example, a character in the foreground suggests that this is the most significant character whereas the character being in the background suggests that they are not significant. This, however, might not apply to over the shoulder shots, this is because the person behind the other character is fully in the shot and therefore the main focus.

In this photograph, the puppy sleeping at the front is the one assumed to be the
focal figure in this image - ignoring the fact the other puppies are out of focus -
this is because he is positioned at the front, slightly overlapping his sister. If one
of the other puppies had been positioned at the front, it would be assumed that
they were the one the audience were supposed to be focused on. Moreover, the
pup at the front is almost entirely in shot whereas the other puppies are slightly
cut out of frame. However, the puppy is slight to the right, keeping the other
puppies in the shot, which is perhaps a method to get across information (that he's
among his litter) to the audience. 

• Costume, Hair and Makeup - This simply refers to what clothes the character is wearing and how their hair and makeup is styled. Not only can this indicate to the audience what the character is like but also what time, era, culture and region it is set in. It suggests what a character's personality is like, for example, if a character is dressed in quirky, extravagant clothing it can be assumed that they're quite eccentric themselves, whereas if a persons dressed in a suit, it can be assumed that they're quite organised and have their life together. It also suggests their occupation, for example if they're wearing uniform with a specific brand or indication of job on - i.e. a police officer or a company salesman. Not only does it suggest these things about the character, it can help the audience understand where its set or in what culture. If the character's are wearing something that is culture specific i.e. a sari, then it can be assumed that the film is set in India or elsewhere places associated with these cultural clothing, or even just among a community that practice the culture (even if they don't live an area where it is custom). Moreover, it can suggest what era, for example, if it was a period piece they would be wearing old-fashioned clothing that is easily distinguishable as antique. It might even suggest time of day, if they are wearing pyjamas it probably indicates that its set at nighttime or early morning, as it wouldn't be appropriate to wear pyjamas at other points in the day. If it was during daytime, then this suggests that the character is quite slobbish and lazy, as they haven't been bothered to change.

From this costume, you can infer that its set in the early to mid 20th century,
if I were to take a precise guess as to what decade I would say the 1940s. They
look quite expensive and refined, which would suggest that the woman is wealthy
and posh. The outfit is fully accessorised which suggests that she has a taste for
fashion, moreover her hair and makeup has been done quite carefully so she
looks like she is quite high maintenance and definitely not unkempt. This shows
that she's probably quite organised and dedicated because she takes the time
to make herself look 'presentable'.

• Filmstock, Editing and Colour - Filmstock is whether it is filmed in black and white or if it is grainy or not. Feature films generally aren't black and white or grainy as they are often desired to look pristine in order to appear professional. If it was grainy or in black and white, it would look similar to an old movie or it would look quite grungy and gritty. This effect may be used, however, if the director is trying to produce something that isn't professional looking - this style is often unnerving. This may be applied to make it artistic. The use of colour is quite important because colour has many different connotations, darker colours often connote mystery or fear whereas lighter colours may connote happiness. Colour may also be used to draw attention to something, for example, if the majority of the picture is one colour however one singular element is a completely contrasting colour, this would draw the audience's attention to that element because there is a contrast and it stands out more because it's different. 

I edited an old photograph I had taken of my dog to illustrate the differences colour correction can make on the way the audience interprets the mood of the film:

 This photo is very saturated in colour and has very bright colours. It has blue and green undertones which are slightly reminiscent of nature. Nature is associated with purity and therefore adds a feel of innocence to the image. Because the colours are so bright, it connotes happiness as colour and light are strongly associated with summer and happiness. This look would suit a lighthearted film, as it helps the audience interpret the film as happy. If this filter was used over a horror movie, it would look out of place as it doesn't have a very scary effect.

This photo is far less saturated in colour, so it's not as lively as the other image. It has more red undertones, which can connote more adult themes. The image is a lot darker, which is often associated with fear or other negative emotions. This is far more grungy than the other edit so it would suit a more grown up theme - it would work particularly well in a horror film. This moody filter wouldn't suit a happy film because it takes away any happiness or humour because it connotes sorrow or fear instead of happiness. There is less contrast so it's not as striking either.

Mise-en-Scène Applied to a Photograph 
In this image, it depicts a scary house. This is made scary because of the inclusion of certain mise-en-scene elements. For example, there is not much natural lightening. This is because natural lighting eg. sunlight, is associated with pureness and happiness. In this image, the only form of light is from the moon (assumed to be based on the bluesh tinge) and the shard of lightening pictured in the background. Lightening is associated with fear, making that incorperation fitting, and the moon is associated with night, which connotes darkness and fear. The house has shattered windows, distressed wood and boarded up entrances, which conforms to the typical appearance of a scary house. The image has blue tones which is associated with misery.

In this photograph, it also contains a house. This house is covered in pink hearts and looks very bright. The sun is shining and the overall colours are very bright and neutral. This picture radiates happiness. This goes to show that elements of mise-en-scene can change so much, in this case, a house.